추가 적립 안내

본서는 새로운 교육과정을 염두에 두고 불교로부터 시작하여 신유학 사상 전반을 포함하고 있다.

“신유학을 이해하는 데 있어 불교 이해는 필수적이다. 본서는 내용 전개의 중심에 주희와 왕양명을 두고 그 주변 인물들을 상세히 소개하고 있다.

필자가 보기에 신유학 혹은 주자학은 주희라는 한 걸출 한 인물에 의해 주변 학자들의 도움 없이 성립된 게 아니라, 주희와 이들과의 교류와 논쟁 속에서 싹트고 발전했다.”

본서는 일반 중국철학사와는 좀 다르게 구성되어 대학의 강의 교재로 적합합니다.

저자서문

제1장
중관학파(中觀學派)와 이제설(二諦說)의 이해 ········································· 1

제2장
유식학파(唯識學派)와 오위설(五位說)의 이해 ········································ 7

제3장
천태종(天台宗)과 법화경 이해 ·························································· 15
법화경과 사구게 ············································································ 17
오시팔교(五時八敎) ············································································ 21
삼제원융(三諦圓融) ············································································ 26
일념삼천(一念三千) ············································································ 28
지관(止觀) ·························································································· 30

제4장
화엄종(華嚴宗)과 　화엄경　 이해 ·························································· 33
화엄 오조(五祖)와 화엄경 ································································· 34
성기설(性起說) ··················································································· 38
일체유심조(一切唯心造) ····································································· 39
법계연기(法界緣起) ············································································ 41
사종법계(四種法界 four dharma-dh　tus) ········································· 43
육상원융(六相圓融) ············································································ 45
법신불 : 비로자나불[毘盧遮那佛 Vairocana Buddha] ····················· 47

제5장
선종(禪宗)과 육조단경 이해 ······························································ 51
달마에서 혜능까지 의발(衣鉢)의 전수 ············································· 52
혜능과 육조단경의 사상 ······························································· 55
선종의 가르침 : ‘사구게(四句偈)’ ···················································· 64
오가칠종 계보도 ··············································································· 69

제6장
대학(大學)　과 　중용(中庸)　 이해 ······················································· 71
사서(四書)와 대학, 중용, 그리고 예기(禮記)　 ························· 71
주희와 대학 중용　 ········································································ 75
대학(大學)과 ‘대학’의 의미 ·························································· 78
대학의 판본 저자, 주희의 　대학장구　 ·········································· 80
삼강령(三鋼領)과 팔조목(八條目) ······················································ 86
중용(中庸)　과 ‘중용’의 의미 ·························································· 89
중용의 저자와 저작 시기의 문제 ················································· 90
중용의 형이상학적 이론 ······························································· 94

제7장
주역과 역전 이해 ·············································································· 99
괘(卦), 효(爻), 8괘, 64괘 ······························································· 102
64괘에 대한 이해 ··········································································· 107
삼역(三易) ························································································ 110
변역(變易)과 불역(不易)은 모순 관계인가　-거짓말쟁이의 역설
(Liar Paradox) ········································································· 113
역전과 신유학 : 생생(生生)과 다른 개념들 ·································· 121

제8장
신유학의 체용론(體用論) 이해 ···························································· 127
체(體)와 용(用)의 의미 ··································································· 128
불교의 체용론 ················································································· 131
신유학의 체용론 ············································································· 136
체용론과 서양의 실체 개념 ··························································· 140

제9장
새로운 시대 새로운 유학사상 ····························································· 145
신유학 발흥의 배경 : 사대부의 등장 ············································ 147
신유학 발흥의 배경 : 사회 　 경제적 배경 ······································ 150
신유학의 시대의식과 지적 특성 ···················································· 153
형이상학적 우주창생론 ··································································· 155
신유학과 불교 ················································································· 158

제10장
주돈이(周惇)와 태극도설(太極圖說) ················································ 163
태극도설의 우주창생론 ······························································· 166
태극도설과 　통서의 윤리학 ······················································ 175

제11장
무극(無極)이면서 태극인가 무극으로부터 태극인가　 ······················ 185
무극으로부터 태극이 됨[自無極而爲太極] ······································· 186
주희의 입장 ····················································································· 189

제12장
신유가의 태극개념 : 태극은 실체 개념인가　 ··································· 197
소강절과 장재의 태극관 ································································· 199
주희의 태극론 : 궁극 이치와 표준 ··············································· 203
태극도설해 : 궁극의 원리 ······························································ 205
주륙(朱陸) 논변 : 최고의 표준 ······················································ 213
태극은 실체인가　 ············································································ 219

제13장
장재(張載) : 우주는 기의 덩어리 ······················································ 223
태허는 기이다 ················································································· 225
기화(氣化), 신화(神化) ···································································· 231
공취성[攻取之性], 기질성[氣質性], 천지성[天地性] ························· 233
마음, 견문지[見聞之知], 덕성지[德性所知] ······································ 239
공부론 ······························································································ 241
서명: 우주의 구성원은 모두 한 가족 ······································ 245

제14장
정호(程灝)와 생생(生生)의 원리··································································· 251
가을날 우연히 짓다 ···································································254
천리((天理), 천도··································································· 255
마음을 편안하게 함: 정성서··································································· 264
공부론··································································· 269

제15장
정이와 리기 이원론··································································· 273
이치 , 도, 본성 ···································································275
이치의 성과 기질의 성 ···································································280
분성과 마음 ···································································283
경, 함양 ···································································284
격물 치지··································································· 288

제16장
주희와 신유학의 완성 ···································································293
리기론(理氣論)··································································· 296
리와 기의 개념··································································· 296
리와 기의 선후 문제 ···································································299
리와 기의 동정··································································· 302
리일분수(理一分洙) ···································································305
심성론(心性論) ···································································309
천지지성(天地之性)과 기질지성(氣質之性)··································································· 314
도심과 인심 ···································································316
수양론··································································· 319
주경함양 ···································································319
격물(궁리)··································································· 323
지와 행의 문제 ···································································333

제17장
진량과 공리주의··································································· 337
공리주의와 동기주의··································································· 339
결과지향의 공리주의 윤리 ···································································341
상대적, 내재적 도 ···································································346

제18장
왕수인: 내 마음이 바로 도덕 법칙이다
양지 ···································································351
`내 마음이 곧 도덕 판단의 준거··································································· 355
지행합일 ···································································358
치양지 ···································································362
시구종지··································································· 368

제19장
청대 이후 도서양에서 유학의 전개 ···································································375

찾아보기 ···································································379

중관학파(中觀學派)와 이제설(二諦說)의 이해





붓
다의 입적 이후 저마다 세존의 가르침에 대해 자신의 이해를 정당화하는 주장을 하고 나서자, 여러 학설이 경쟁하는 부파불교 시대가 시작된다. 부파불교의 대표적인 교학이 아비달마불교(阿毘達磨佛敎, abhidharma buddhism)이다. 아비달마는 아비(abhi)와 다르마(dharma)의 복합어로 ‘abhi’는 ‘~에 대한’이라는 뜻이다. 그래서 아비는 일반적으로 ‘[붓다의 법에] 대한’을 의미하는 ‘대법(對法)’으로 번역된다. 당시 분열된 교단을 부파불교라는 용어가 상징한다면, 아비달마는 사상적으로 다양한 해석이 당시에 유행했음을 상징한다. 불교의 전체 역사를 조감할 때, 이런 이론적 교학 논쟁으로 세존의 참된 실천적 가르침이 빛을 잃었다고 보고, 이에 반발하여 등장한 불교 학파가 바로 번잡한 이론을 경계한 선종이다.
대승불교가 본격적으로 전개 되자, 대승불교의 중심이론인 공[空, ??nyat?]을 체계적으로 설명해야 할 필요성이 대두된다. 대승불교의 공 이론은 본성(praktri), 자성[svabh?va, 自性], 실체[實體, dravya], 자아[自我, ?tman] 등 우리가 일반적으로 근본적 존재로 간주하는 것들이 사실은 경험 세계에서 시간의 추이에 따라 소멸하는 것에 불과하다는 점을 사람들에게 일깨우는데 그 목적이 있다. 모든 것이 ‘상호 의존적 발생[緣起, dependant origination]’ ‘상호 의존적 발생’을 의미하는 연기(緣起)의 참 뜻을 알아야 공론을 제대로 이해할 수 있다. ‘상호 의존적 발생’으로 풀이할 수 있는 연기를 존재의 차원에 적용시키면 논리적으로 자연스럽게 空의 논리가 도출된다. 이에 대한 설명은 필자의 ?동양윤리사상 강의? (새문사, 2017) 252-254쪽을 참고.
에 의해 만들어진다는 세존의 간명하고 파괴적인 깨달음은 중관학파[中觀學派, Madhyamika, Madhyamaka]의 나가르주나[용수(龍樹), N?g?rjuna, 150?-250?]에 이르러서야 가장 성공적으로 설명된다. 이후 대승사상은 그의 이론을 기초로 하여 전개된다. 그는 자신의 대표 저작인 ?중론(中論, MMK)?에서 세계에 대한 인간의 분별인식과 이를 일으킨 언어의 허구성을 폭로했다. 아비달마의 이론에 맞서 용수는 ‘부정(否定)’의 방법으로 자성의 실체성을 부인해 존재의 공성(空性)을 사람들에게 일깨웠다.
예를 들어, 갤러리에서 그림을 감상할 때, 우리는 그 넓고 은은한 불빛의 쾌적한 공간을 미술품을 전시하는 방이라고 생각해 전시실 혹은 전시관이라고 언어로 표기하고 이를 관념화해서 받아들인다. 전시실이나 전시관이라는 용어를 사용하면 할수록, 우리는 불현듯 그 공간을 전시실 혹은 전시관으로 규정짓고 어느새 마치 전시실 혹은 전시관이 고정된 실재인 것처럼 여기게 된다. 이런 예는 우리 주변에 너무나 많다. 그런데 과연 전시실이나 전시관이 실재하는가? 미술관에 공간이 부족하여 그 공간을 사무실로 쓰기로 결정하거나, 혹은 수익을 올리기 위해 카페로 임대하면, 그 공간은 더 이상 전시실 혹은 전시관일 수 없다. 공의 논리는 전시실이나 전시관이 실재하는 게 아니라는 점을 적절하게 설명해 준다. 용수는 이렇게 실재성이 없는 것을 무자성(無自性)이라고 부르고 모든 존재에게 이를 적용한다. 비근한 예로 우리는 흔히 ‘자아’라고 부르는 존재의 본질이 있다고 믿고, 자아가 실재한다고 믿는다. 하지만, 우리가 자아라고 믿는 존재는 시간의 추이에 따라 변화하는 와중에 있고, 따라서 고정 불변하는 실체가 아니다[無我].
그래서 공은 연기의 다른 설명방식이고, 사실상 연기는 바로 공이며, 무자성이다. 주지하듯, 이 점이 반야경[반야바라밀다경(般若波羅蜜多經), praj??p?ramit? s?tra]에 등장하는 공론(空論)의 주요 뼈대이다.
용수가 주된 비판으로 삼았던 아비달마의 논리와 비교해보면 그의 논점을 잘 알 수 있다. 아비달마불교에서는 자아는 공이지만 개별자로서의 법은 실재한다고 주장한다. 하지만 용수는 이 법의 ‘실재성’도 부정해 모든 존재는 그것이 구성되기 위한 조건[因緣]들로 구성되어 있을 뿐이라고 강조한다. 용수는 세존이 설법한 연기법 자체도 본질적으로 공이라고 선언한다. 즉, 실재성을 갖는다고 여긴 다르마[法]와 같은 예외를 그는 인정하지 않는다. 용수는 ?중론?에서 기존에 불변하는 진리로 여겨졌던 인과성, 12연기, 사성제의 교설 등을 모두 부정한다. ?중론?에 담긴 그의 주장은 놀라울 정도로 래디컬(radical)하다. 붓다의 근본 교리에 매달리는 일반인의 소박한 믿음을 망상이라고 한칼에 쳐내는 그의 주장은 명쾌하고 시원할 정도이다.
용수의 이런 입장은 ‘반야개공(般若皆空)’의 사고방식에서 잘 드러난다. 반야(praj??)란 존재의 본 모습을 파악할 수 있는 지혜를 말한다. 즉, 관습적으로 모든 존재에 그 자체의 본질이 있다고 상정하여 존재의 본질을 실체시하는 우리의 편협하고 고착된 인식을 부정하는 지혜이다. 용수는 연기의 법칙에 따라, 관계가 배제된 그 자체로서의 존재는 세상 어디에도 존재하지 않는다고 주장한다. 그에 따르면 참된 지혜를 가진 자는 세계의 모든 존재를 상대적인 관계성[緣起] 속에서 파악한다.
이러한 그의 주장은 이른바 팔부중도(八不中道)에 잘 나타나 있다. ?중론?의 시작부분인 귀경게(歸敬偈)에 나오는 이 팔부중도(八不中道)의 내용은 ‘불멸(不滅), 불생(不生), 부단(不斷), 불상(不常), 불일(不一), 불이(不異), 불래(不來), 불출(不出)’의 8가지이다. 이를 풀어 보면, ‘[연기란 그 어떤 것도] 소멸되지 않고, [그 어떤 것도] 생겨나지 않고, [그 어떤 것도] 단절되지 않고, [그 어떤 것도] 상주하지 않고, [어떤 것도] 그 자체와 같지 않고, [어떤 것도] 그 자체와 다른 것이 아니고, [어떤 것도] 오지 않고, [어떤 것도] 가지 않는다.’라는 뜻이다. 팔불(八不)이라는 부정의 논리를 내세워 그는 연기의 이법은 생멸?단상(斷常)?일이(一異)?거래(去來)의 대립을 넘어선 것이며, 바로 공임을 지적한다. 일반인은 생멸?단상?일이?거래를 실체적인 법(法)이라고 생각하여 이에 집착하고 바로 여기서 번뇌가 생겨난다. 하지만 깨달은 자는 이에 집착하지 않으며, 팔불(八不)이 중도[中道, the middle way]임을 알고 있다.
하지만 이 중도설은 일반인에게 여전히 이해하기 어려운 측면이 있다. 일체가 공한 것이라면 붓다가 설한 사성제(四聖諦)의 가르침도 공한 것이 되는데, 불교를 배우는 이가 사성제의 가르침을 무시해도 되는 것일까? 공에 대한 사람들의 이런 질문을 해소해 주기 위해 용수는 ?중론? 24장에서 세속제(世俗諦)와 제일의제[第一義諦, 勝義諦]라는 이중의 진리관[二諦說]을 내세운다. 용수가 이제설을 분명하게 언급했지만, 이에 대한 본격적 논의는 중론에 대한 주석가들의 후대 해석에 힘입은 바 크다.

먼저 세속제는 언어적 논리가 지배하는 이 세상의 언어적 진실을 말한다. 우리는 말하지 않는 순간에도 세상을 언어적으로 분별하고 이해한다. 인간의 근원적 문제는 이 방편적 수단인 언어적 분별, 그리고 이를 바탕으로 구성된 언어의 세계를 참된 세계로 여기는 데에서 비롯된다. 팔부중도를 통해 용수가 보여주고자 했던 점도 언어적 분별에 빠져있는 인간의 실상이다. 사실 우리는 다른 이들과 소통하기 위해 방편적으로 언어적 분별을 [어쩔 수 없이] 사용하고 있다. 하지만 언어는 세계의 실상을 보여주지 못한다. 언어는 그 자체로 진실일 수 없다. 이를 깨달으면, 인간은 세속의 번뇌에 빠지지 않을 수 있다. 하지만 인간이 이 언어적 방편을 실재와 같은 것으로 여기고 언어적 분별에 집착하면 할수록, 번뇌는 늘어난다. 이처럼 불교도 노장철학처럼 언어의 한계와 문제를 일찍 간파하고 경계했다. 불교의 많은 담론은 인식론이나 언어철학의 문제를 연상시킨다.

제일의제 혹은 승의제는 언어적 분별을 넘어선 무분별의 궁극 진리[空性]를 말한다. 당연히 이 승의제는 언어로 표현될 수 없다. 붓다 자신의 사성제, 용수 자신의 중론 등은 모두 이 승의제에 이르는 길을 보여주기 위한 방편적 수단이다. 그런데 세속제에 기대지 않으면 제일의제는 설해지지 않는다. 세속제와 승의제는 위계를 가지고 있거나 단절되어 있는 이론이 아니다. 다시 말해, 세속과 깨달음의 세계는 각각 차원을 달리하는 서로 다른 별도의 세계를 가리키지 않는다. 다만 언어적 분별상에 대한 집착과 무집착의 유무에 따라 나뉘는 같은 세계의 다른 표현일 뿐이다. 용수는 이를 ‘윤회는 열반과 차이가 없으며, 열반도 윤회와 차이가 없다.’고 표현한다. 이처럼 세계를 유 혹은 무가 아닌 비유비무(非有非無)의 중(中)으로 바라보는 지혜가 승의제이다. 용수의 사상은 불교 교리의 발전에 큰 영향을 끼쳤다. 그의 사상은 구마라지바[鳩摩羅什, Kumarajiva]에 의해 중국으로 전해져 삼론종(三論宗)을 형성했다. 특히 고구려 출신의 승려인 승랑(僧朗)이 진제와 속제가 진속불이(眞俗不二) 관계에 놓여 있음을 주장하여, 삼론종의 실질적인 기틀을 마련했다. 이후 중관학은 8세기 경 산타라크시타에 의해 티베트로 전래되어, 티베트 불교의 형성에도 영향을 준다.
최후의 깨달음에 도달하려면, 언어적 사유 판단에 기반을 둔 대립 관념을 넘어서 그 자체로 관조[觀]하는 게 필요하다. 요컨대, 유도 아니며 무도 아닌 불이(不二)의 중(中)으로 관조하는 ‘분별과 집착이 끊어진 완전한 지혜[반야바라밀다(般若波羅蜜多), praj??p?ramit?]’가 요구된다.

제2장



유식학파(唯識學派)와 오위설(五位說)의 이해





유
식(唯識) 학파는 중관학파와 더불어 대승불교의 양대 학파를 형성한다. 이 학파는 수행방법으로서 유가행(瑜伽行), 즉 요가(Yoga)를 중요시하므로 유가행파(瑜伽行派) 혹은 유가행유식학파(瑜伽行